The Gullah Geechee of Sapelo Island: What to know

Sapelo is the rare inhabited barrier island along the Georgia coast not dotted with beachfront homes, resorts and other familiar signs of oceanside development.

Part of the reason is the island is connected to the mainland by ferryboat, not a road or bridge. Another factor was a zoning restriction that limited residences to 1,400 square feet. The ordinance has prevented the building of luxury homes and hotels like those found elsewhere along the coast in places like Tybee Island and St. Simons Island.

A revision to that ordinance prompted the referendum effort. The McIntosh County Commission revised that law to allow homes up to 3,000 square feet in September 2023. Island residents countered with a signature petition drive, seeking a citizens’ referendum meant to repeal the ordinance, much like Camden County residents did in 2022 in overturning a County Commission vote involving a controversial proposed spaceport.

Credit: Justin Taylor for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution

Credit: Justin Taylor for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution

Sapelo residents succeeded in their petition drive, and the referendum moved forward. The McIntosh County Commission filed suit to stop the election, asserting that zoning decisions are not subject to the part of the state constitution that allows for referendums. A Superior Court judge sided with the county in 2024, halting a special election in which early voting was already underway and prompting the appeal to Georgia’s high court.

Here’s what you need to know about Sapelo Island, the Gullah Geechee and the referendum.

Credit: Adam Van Brimmer/AJC

Credit: Adam Van Brimmer/AJC

Where is Sapelo Island?

One of Georgia’s 14 barrier islands, Sapelo is near the halfway point of the state’s coastline, about an hour’s drive south of Savannah. The island is part of McIntosh County, a sparsely populated county renowned for its shrimping fleet.

The state of Georgia owns 97% of the 16,500-acre island and manages its land as an estuarine reserve and marine institute. Georgia also operates the Reynolds Mansion, a plantation manor house, as a state park.

Private landholders own 434 acres of Sapelo in and around the Gullah Geechee community of Hogg Hummock. The neighborhood is centered on the interior of the island, but several privately owned properties have water views.

Sapelo is 3.1 miles wide at its widest point and 12 miles long.

Who are the Gullah Geechee?

Enslaved people from West Africa were first brought to work Sapelo’s plantations in the early 1800s. The largest crop was sugar cane, and at the height, approximately 385 laborers worked the fields.

Following emancipation and the Civil War’s end in 1865, many of the freed Black slaves remained on Sapelo and established a number of settlements. They became known as Gullah Geechee and survived through farming, timbering and oystering. Tobacco magnate R.J. Reynolds bought much of Sapelo in 1934 and consolidated the Gullah Geechee settlements into one community at Hogg Hummock.

The Gullah Geechee population has slowly dwindled in the decades since as descendants moved off the island. Today, fewer than 40 live full time on Sapelo and less than half the property in Hogg Hummock is owned by Gullah Geechee. Those who still live on Sapelo occupy modest dwellings, such as cottages and mobile homes.

In October 2024, seven visitors were killed during the island’s annual heritage festival when a gangway collapsed at a state-owned and operated ferry dock.

Credit: Brian Brown/Vanishing Georgia

Credit: Brian Brown/Vanishing Georgia

What happened with the zoning ordinance?

The McIntosh County manager introduced revisions to the zoning ordinance in September 2023, just a week before the commission was to vote on the changes. In addition to the dwelling size change, the proposal included language that would have allowed a marina to be built on the island and removed references to historic preservation of the community.

According to Sapelo’s Gullah Geechee residents, none were consulted by the county during the ordinance revision process. However, public meetings were held on the ordinance in 2021 and 2022.

The McIntosh commission narrowed the ordinance to focus on home square footage before the vote. The revision passed 3-2, with then-Chairman David Stevens casting the deciding vote. In remarks during the meeting, Stevens blamed the Gullah Geechee for necessitating the zoning change by selling Hogg Hummock properties to non-descendants and added that the current generation of Gullah Geechee lack the cultural appreciation shown by their ancestors.

Credit: Miguel Martinez-Jimenez

Credit: Miguel Martinez-Jimenez

How did the Gullah Geechee fight the ordinance change?

Sapelo residents filed a lawsuit challenging the validity of the ordinance in October 2023. They claimed race discrimination, saying the change would lead to property tax increases that would force them to sell their land. A judge dismissed that lawsuit in March 2024, citing a technical error.

Just before the lawsuit’s filing, the Gullah Geechee hinted at mounting a voter referendum initiative. Under the home rule provision of the Georgia Constitution, citizens can challenge local legislative decisions.

To trigger a referendum, the Gullah Geechee needed 1,800 county residents to sign petitions calling for the election. They submitted petitions containing 2,300 signatures and Judge Harold Webster ordered the election on July 23, 2024.

That same day, McIntosh County filed a lawsuit challenging the legality of the election. A Superior Court judge heard arguments in the case on Sept. 20, 2024. Judge Gary McCorvey issued a ruling siding with the county and halting the election on Sept. 25.

The Gullah Geechee appealed, and the Georgia Supreme Court heard oral arguments in the case in April 2025. The justices ruled in favor of residents in an opinion released five months later.

Credit: Justin Taylor for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution

Credit: Justin Taylor for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution